Advancements in non-invasive biomarkers for detection and monitoring of breast cancer recurrence

Abstract

Breast cancer recurrence remains a major cause of mortality, with up to 30% of early stage patients relapsing as incurable metastatic disease. Conventional surveillance with imaging and serum markers (CA15–3, CEA) lacks the sensitivity and specificity to detect minimal residual disease. This narrative review examines non-invasive biomarkers such as circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA), circulating tumor cells (CTCs) and exosomes and the technologies enhancing their performance. Droplet digital PCR and next-generation sequencing detect ctDNA at allele frequencies below 0.1%, identifying molecular relapse a median of 10–12 months before radiologic progression. Microfluidic and affinity-based platforms isolate CTCs with over 75% sensitivity in metastatic settings. Nanoengineered sensors and standardized workflows improve exosome isolation, revealing miRNA and protein signatures predictive of recurrence. Proteomic and metabolomic profiling iden tify dysregulated metabolic pathways and protein networks, offering functional insights that complement molecular assays. Integrative multi-omics approaches merge genomic, transcriptomic, proteomic and metabolomic data; machine-learning frameworks detect subtle patterns and correlations, enabling dynamic, personalized surveillance. By detect ing molecular and functional biomarkers early, clinicians can tailor therapy, monitor treatment response and intervene promptly. Challenges include low analyte abundance, assay variability, high costs and lack of standardized protocols, limiting clinical adoption. Prospective validation in large cohorts is critical. We highlight ongoing clinical trials such as ctDNA-guided adjuvant therapy and CTC-driven stratification studies that aim to establish clinical utility. Non-invasive biomarker platforms could shift breast cancer fol low-up from reactive detection to proactive intervention, ultimately improving survival and quality of life through personalized, real-time monitoring.